Butterfly Conservation Ireland

In The Irish Butterfly Book, I wrote the following about the brood structure of the Cryptic Wood White, one of Ireland’s most mysterious butterflies, and strangely absent from Britain.

While it is double-brooded in parts of Europe (Eeles, 2019), it has proven to be single-brooded in Ireland (but see below). This species has remained single-brooded even in the hottest summers, such as the summer of 2018. None of the eggs from Kildare reared by Peter Eeles in the South of England in 2018 went into a second brood, whereas all the Wood Whites he reared from English stock did (Eeles, 2019).

However, on September 2nd 2020, I caught a freshly emerged male in a hedged lane at Mulhussey, County Meath, seven weeks after the last adult Cryptic Wood White was seen in the area. This is the first confirmed identification of a Cryptic Wood White flying several weeks after its usual flight period in Ireland ended. Interestingly, the undersides (of the individual caught) look paler than in a first brood, and the black wingtip on the forewing upperside appears to be more extensive. While finding this individual butterfly cannot be interpreted as evidence that the species can be double-brooded in Ireland, the finding raises questions. Did the early start to its flight period in 2020 and the warm, sunny weather, which lasted from April to the beginning of June, encourage a second flight, albeit by one or a small number of individuals? Is it therefore single-brooded in Ireland because of the climatic and ecological conditions? If so, will the warming climate and the resulting longer growing season for plants cause the species to emerge earlier in the year and fit in a second generation? Or is the Cryptic Wood White in Ireland genetically programmed to be single-brooded, and the specimen found a late emergent? The answers should emerge, with changing conditions, over time.

That time might be here. Several Cryptic Wood Whites have been recorded in Northern Ireland late in July, but just one in the south, in Kildare. Between 14 and 19 were seen at 6 sites in Northern Ireland (7-8 at Navan Fort and Quarry, Co. Armagh; 2-5 at Craigavon Lakes, Co. Armagh; 2 at Colin Glen Forest, Co. Antrim, 1-2 at Umbra Dunes, Co. Londonderry; one at Murlough, Co. Down, and one at Belfast Harbour Estate, Co. Down.

Another record from the north, from Carrowhugh, near Inishowen Head, Co. Donegal, from July 30th, by Con O’ Donnell, adds to the northerly bias of these late July records. Only a single record for late July comes from the south, from Cadamstown, Kildare, on July 24th, from James O’Neill. This adds to the mystery. The tendency to produce further generations in Ireland (and in Europe generally) typically decreases further north. Holly Blue can produce three generations in Cork. In Donegal, so far, Holly Blue produces one brood a year.

We would like to know if this species is changing its habits. Interestingly, the weather so far in 2025 resembles the conditions in 2020, the last year a late emerging Cryptic Wood White was seen.

If its brood structure is changing, there are implications for how we deal with herb-rich edges along hedges and wood edges and wilder grassland in managed areas.

Please check areas that you know contain Cryptic Wood White butterflies in spring, and let us know if you find any, or if you don’t. 

Send your butterfly records to us by email to: conservation.butterfly@gmail.com.

Let us know:

your first name/s, and surname/s, 

your contact details (typically an email address),

date of find,

species found,

the life stage/s found,

numbers seen,

location the butterfly/moth was found (e.g. townland name, site name, county),

six-figure grid reference, including the letter identifying the 100,000-metre grid square in which the location lies (from http://www.gridreference.ie/ or Discovery Series maps)

weather conditions

and any other interesting comments you wish to provide.

Example: John Doe (30/07/2025)

Cryptic Wood White 1, Common Blue 5 at N 95856 10275, Native Woodland Trust reserve, Burgage, Co. Wicklow. Sunny spells, 20 Celsius.

References

Eeles, P. (2019). Life Cycles of British & Irish Butterflies. Pisces Publications, Berkshire.

Harding, J (2021). The Irish Butterfly Book. Privately published, Maynooth.

 

The rain is beating heavily on the skylight as I type, the drumming patter and light-swallowing gloom projecting me to a juxtaposed childhood, with confinement and feral freedom vying for prominence in memory.

A 1970s childhood is incomparable with today’s. Technology and the radically different parental outlook on safety are key drivers of the shift from the era when children roamed at will and reappeared when hunger, cartoon time, or bedtime beckoned to an IT-dominated, sedentary life where outdoor activity, when it occurs, is adult-supervised. Rare are the impromptu games that kick off when one of the boys shows up with a new plastic football; games are now scheduled; parents drop off and collect their offspring. Values are quite different, with media playing a greater role in shaping moral values and social mores.

Change brings benefits and drawbacks. We have less contact with the outdoor world, yet ironically, the concern for the condition of the natural environment is greater than it was, despite the loss of nature that occurred well before and during the 1960s and 1970s. More of us say we are worried about the state of nature than the public expressed fifty years ago. I cannot help but feel that some of this is armchair or couch concern, fed by generalised anxiety that is grievously prevalent in contemporary Western society. Deeper empathy comes from contact with nature.

My parents were happy or unhappy. When they were happy, I could disapparate, to use J.K. Rowling’s verb for vanish. Rambling the fields and hills alone or with friends, life was great. Bird nest hunting, pursuing and catching butterflies, looking for Fox dens, Hedgehogs and Badger setts, collecting frogspawn…you name it, we did it.

I was given an arbitrary time to be home by, which I divined by the severity of stomach rumblings or the arc of the sun across the sky or the onset of conscience, quickened by fear of the consequences of lateness, which could be unpleasant.

When my parents were unhappy, life at home reflected that, a pathetic fallacy realised. This could last for days, and confinement indoors followed.

One thing my mother couldn’t abide was grass seed stitched into our socks, an inevitability when traipsing through knee-high grasses of the hay-making era. She set out the conditions for allowing me out, and avoiding grass seed in socks (with her poor English, mum called them ‘nettles’) was one, and utterly unfulfillable. When I returned, socks riddled with seed, consequences occurred.

Mum knew that I would agree to anything for permission to go out, and this was milked. Sometimes the domestic servitude release conditions were so onerous that it wasn’t worth complying: scrub the kitchen floor on hands and knees, hoover the house, wash and dry the dishes, play with your brother and sister (for how long?), do the shopping and then you can go out, as long as you don’t get nettles in your socks.

I recall my surprise at once being offered a choice of punishments: a few smacks or being locked in my bedroom for the rest of the day. The wooden spoon was chosen. Physical punishment, however unpleasant, was brief. After it was administered, parental guilt meant I was allowed to head for the hills. 

I was confined in my room.  I’d shown my hand. Furious at being tricked and incarcerated, I lay on my bed and cried bitterly. The sun shone outside, laughing at my imprisonment. Think of all the butterflies I was missing. All my friends would be out looking for recently arrived Red Admirals.

There I lay, staring at a white ceiling instead of a blue sky. Perhaps a gang of pals would call to the door asking if I could go out. That might do the trick. Sometimes my mother relented because she’d feel guilty. That didn’t happen that day.

But something good did. The top bedroom window was open, and in danced the most beautiful Small Tortoiseshell butterfly I have ever seen. It fluttered round the bedroom, tossed itself against the brilliant white ceiling, carefully searching for a hideout. I was paralysed with wonder. The usual orange ground colour of the uppersides of the Small Tortoiseshell was instead a deep red, like the pure, dreamlike crimson of Mabille’s Red Glider Cymothoe mabille or even the Blood-red Glider Cymothoe sangaris, both species of Central African forests.

My usual reaction to seeing a butterfly in flight was to sprint in its direction. Spellbound, I lay still. Admiration inspired stillness. What I didn’t know is that this messenger from the world of sunshine has a topographical memory. Egg-laying females lay large clusters of eggs under the leaf of a nettle located near or at the top of a Stinging Nettle. Egg-laying females are frequently disturbed by birds or mammals. The disturbed female flies away from the egg-site, in a straight line, up to 17 metres from their unfinished cluster, returning to resume egg-laying when the disturbance has ended. When a nettle containing an unfinished egg cluster is moved, the female returns to the original position of the nettle, not to the place to which it has been moved. The female is relying on spatial memory, not on scent, to relocate her egg cluster.

Neither mating nor egg-laying was on the mind of this mythical butterfly. It didn’t blunder into my room. The butterfly was looking for an overwintering spot. From mid-July to early August, a small minority of our Small Tortoiseshells are non-reproductive. Instead of mating and laying eggs and dying, these long-lived Small Tortoiseshells are feeding to lay down the fat needed to hibernate. It seems very strange to think of Small Tortoiseshells and Commas hibernating in July and early August. This pre-overwintering behaviour is typical of most autumn Small Tortoiseshells because most are programmed to delay breeding until the following spring, after hibernation. However, a  few Small Tortoiseshells must breed in late August and perhaps in early September; this would explain the presence of caterpillars at the end of September.

There are a few clues as to whether a Small Tortoiseshell belongs to the reproductive cohort or the reproductive delay population. One is the time of the year. Between March and mid-July, all or nearly all Small Tortoiseshells are direct breeders.

Another is place. Breeding Small Tortoiseshells are found near nettles, less often in gardens and flower-rich habitats. Flower-rich locations are the places where overwintering Small Tortoiseshells gather to get ready for hibernation.

Another indicator is behaviour. Courtship, which involves a lengthy flight with male following female, who appears completely disinterested, will be observed in the general countryside and wilder parks, especially near nettle beds. Males establish territories to locate females. These are often in and near nettle beds but sometimes on sun-soaked tracks and near walls to intercept females that are seeking egg-laying sites.

A certain way to identify a direct-breeding male Small Tortoiseshell, Comma and Peacock is to show an object in his eye line. Non-reproductive males and all females ignore the missile. Breeding males fly at the airborne object.

Small Tortoiseshells seen feeding on flowers in late summer and autumn, often concentrated in large numbers, and very easy to approach, are in reproductive diapause. These are second and probably third generation butterflies (the number of generations depends on latitude, climate and very likely, the weather in any given year). These autumn butterflies will join their uncles and aunts that entered hibernation in summer.

I didn’t know this at the age of ten. My gorgeous Small Tortoiseshell, its inspection over, headed back towards the open window. Too late, I thought of shutting it. The bringer of colour, wonder and sunshine was gone. I sprang to the window to follow its flight, but I never saw him again.

The following day, I asked my friends if they’d seen him. They hadn’t.

I hadn’t missed out after all.

Photographs © J. Harding

July 2025 has provided much warmer and sunnier weather than its two predecessors, allowing our butterflies to thrive without being harmed by wet, cold conditions that damage populations. The butterflies flying in early July are still on the wing but are becoming faded. The following article, looking at mid-July butterflies, is based on reports submitted to our 2025 Record page.

A star of the Irish, English and European woods is the magnificent Silver-washed Fritillary. Only one of the 45 fritillaries that occur in Europe is larger, and none have the graceful flight and astonishing courtship ritual that gives this characterful butterfly its popularity among butterfly lovers.

It breeds within woods and mature scrub, but it is often met in clearings and wood edges containing flowers, especially Bramble. The distribution map in  An Atlas of the Butterflies in Ireland 2010-2021 shows an increase in recorded 10 km squares from 248 squares before 2010 to 422 squares in 2021, suggesting that it is thriving in Ireland. It does not occur within typical commercial coniferous plantations or woods or parts of woods containing mainly non-native trees like Sycamore and Beech. It needs well-lit woods on wet and drier soils containing Common Dog-violet among dry plant litter for the caterpillar and nectar for the adult, especially Bramble and Creeping Thistle. Counties that contain the highest number of recorded squares per area are Wicklow, Kildare and Wexford in Leinster, Fermanagh in Ulster, Clare and Cork in Munster and Galway in Connaught (Harding et al., 2025).

A fellow woodland denizen, but much scarcer and more elusive than the Silver-washed Fritillary, is skulking in some of our oak woods now. The Purple Hairstreak is strictly arboreal, loftily ensconced in foliage sprays of Sessile and Pedunculate Oaks, but it is not well distributed. Its caterpillar and adult feed on oaks, so it is fully reliant on oak woods. Oak woodland, especially lowland oak woodland, is rare in Ireland. The butterfly occurs in two of Dublin’s parks, St. Catherine’s Park, Lucan, and Phoenix Park, near Castleknock and in woodland on a farm in Lucan. Unsurprisingly, Wicklow holds populations along with Carlow and Wexford. Elsewhere, Fermanagh, Derry, Galway, Clare, Laois, Tipperary,  Kilkenny, Waterford, Kerry and Cork have populations, while in Sligo, Roscommon, Mayo and Limerick it is recorded from just a single 10 km square. There are no records for the remaining counties in Ireland in the recent Atlas maps (Harding et al., 2025). 

Another woodland species, but one that loves gardens, especially in suburban and urban areas with mature shrubs and trees, is the highly successful Holly Blue. This diminutive, gleaming garden gem is now just beginning to hatch its second generation. Flashes of violet, somewhat metallic blue, are frequent in sunshine in our wooded parks and gardens, hedges, and woodland, but close views are rarely afforded to us in warm, sunny weather. Let the sun be obscured by cloud, and this shining jewel settles into the foliage, vanishing despite its pale, greyish-blue undersides. The Holly Blue is busy contradicting its name in summer by breeding on Common Ivy. It is the Holly Blue in spring, the ‘Ivy Blue’ during summer and autumn. Seasonal dimorphism is evident in the female, with the summer female showing an extended black forewing apex.

We are staying in sylvan haunts for our next species, continuing with our second-brood theme and a new seasonal look. The summer season’s model is quite dowdy. The spring hatch of the Speckled Wood has deep chocolate upper surfaces spangled with large, rich cream spots. The summer edition is often paler brown with paler, smaller, less vivid spots. The summer males behave differently from their dads, showing a tendency to patrol their territory at a greater pace, creating the appearance of far greater aggression. The seasonal difference is attributable to increased temperatures. Cooler spring weather dictates greater time spent perching over patrolling. The ladies behave differently, too. Spring females lay their eggs in warm areas bathed in sunshine. In hot summer weather, shaded, more humid sites are favoured.

We are not leaving the woods, but our next butterfly likes more open habitats too. There are plenty of splendid scarlet-on-velvet black migrant Red Admirals on the go now. Many are females, laying frantically, suggesting a pent-up ovipositing urge unleashed following their arrival from overseas. Most of the Red Admirals have been extremely wary and almost impossible to approach closely. Speculating on reasons for their skittish demeanour, I have seen Painted Ladies behave in a similarly unsettled manner when arriving in an area, but they disappeared when I checked them the following day. Migrants will feed and possibly lay a few eggs in an area and move on, continuing their journey until they eventually settle in a district. Butterflies that have recently emerged can also be unsettled and highly wary.

The Large White is having a good summer, with records arriving from across the country. This widespread butterfly is a generalist and can turn up almost anywhere, but avoids intact bogland. This butterfly has declined greatly in abundance, with a 74% decline during the period 2008-2024. However, this might be improving; during 2015-2024, the abundance trend shows a 31% decline (Judge & Lysaght, 2025). This shouldn’t create confidence; taking a trend from a downward shifting baseline can obscure the extent of a decline. Grow brassicas and Garden Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus for this handsome, elegant butterfly.

One of the world’s most stunning, multi-coloured butterflies is widespread in Ireland, and its population is stable. It is beginning to appear now and first turned up in my garden yesterday (July 16th). Is anyone ever blasé about seeing a Peacock?

If you are doing Butterfly Conservation Ireland’s National Garden Butterfly Survey, keep a close eye on your garden. Mine is bursting with activity, making me reluctant to go out exploring. What better way to enjoy nature than on your doorstep?

The National Garden Butterfly Survey form is available here: 

https://butterflyconservation.ie/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/National-Garden-Butterfly-Survey.pdf

References

Harding, J and Mapplebeck, P. (2025). Silver-washed Fritillary (Argynnis paphia). Pp 90-91. In Harding & Lysaght (2025).

Judge, M and Lysaght, L.(2025). The Irish Butterfly Monitoring Scheme Newsletter, Issue 17. National Biodiversity Data Centre

Rippey, I. (2025). Purple Hairstreak (Favonius quercus). Pp 66-67. In Harding & Lysaght (2025).

The weather in Ireland in early July 2025 is so-so. Not hot, not cold, not sunny, but not raining heavily. Unlike in 2024, Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock caterpillars are being frequently seen on nettles as both butterflies rebuild after two years of wet weather.

Populations are higher this year, but not abundant. Rome wasn’t built in a day, but it suffered enormous damage on a single day in 443 AD when an earthquake struck central Italy, as the Mount Vettore fault system ruptured. The damage caused by a massive event can be irreparable or take a long time to resolve.

I have not recorded a Garden Tiger moth in my garden since 2015. Damage is therefore ongoing, so my advice is never to turn one’s nose at a common butterfly. Celebrate each; you never know when we may lose them.

All photographs above were taken in early July 2025.

All photos copyright Jesmond Harding.

 

 

The warm air moving north from Africa provides perfect moth weather. Moths, 95% of which are night-flying, need warmth to fly, just as their day-flying counterparts do.  When I headed toward Lullymore, Kildare at 6 am to see what our catch was, the air temperature was  18 Celsius.  Expectations of a high abundance and species diversity were high and fulfilled. The provisional figures for species are 130, including the extreme rarity, Suspected Parastichtis suspecta. The Flame Axylia putris, a common species, was particularly abundant. It is enjoying a good year in the region. 

A wonderful feature of our event was the age range and the enthusiasm of everyone present. Children, college students and older adults were crowded around packed moth traps, enthusiasm barely contained as event leader Philip Strickland carefully inspected individual egg cartons, and Conor recorded the moth list.

Three Robinson traps were opened at the wonderful Bog of Allen Nature Centre, Lullymore, and portable traps at Lullymore West Bog were checked earlier in the morning.  Last year was quite a poor one for moths, except for the autumn period. Moth populations look better this year, but are not as high as they were in the area in 2012, the last time we trapped in the area. They might need another year to recover.

After the traps were checked and moths recorded and photographed, we had refreshments upstairs in the centre before our training on moth trapping and identification. The slide show covered the ecological importance of moths, showed the most common species and a few notable rare species, such as Burren Green Calamia tridens, moth trapping techniques, recording and licensing requirements.

Robinson moth traps and moth guides purchased with the support of the Heritage Council grant to Butterfly Conservation Ireland were provided to enthusiastic Butterfly Conservation Ireland members. They are looking forward to trapping and recording moths. One of the great pleasures of moth trapping is the excitement of seeing so many ‘surprises.’ We see species never encountered in daylight, despite being present in our gardens and wilder places. There are 1505 species in Ireland, so there is so much to discover. 

One never tires of the magic of moths. Their colour, patterning, shape, and size range are simply mesmerically complex. Their occupancy of differing habitats makes them among the most comprehensive of ecological health indicators. If you enjoy nature and care about conservation, you need to learn more about moths!

Thanks are due to Philip Strickland for setting the traps and leading the event, to Richella Duggan for promoting the event, to Nuala Madigan of the Irish Peatland Conservation Council for providing the venue and refreshments, everyone who attended and to the Heritage Council for their generous financial support for the event and purchase of moth traps and the projector used for the training.

 

 

Butterfly Conservation Ireland invites Butterfly Conservation Ireland members and the members of the public to a Moth Morning at the Bog of Allen Nature Centre, Lullymore, Rathangan, Co. Kildare.

This event is generously supported by a grant from The Heritage Council. The Heritage Council are supporting the purchase of a projector, moth traps, and moth identification guides to support the study, distribution mapping and abundance recording of our moth populations.

Moths are a mystery to most of us. Seen as shadowy and destructive by some, they are very important pollinators and vital to the healthy functioning of our ecosystems, so it is important to know more about them. Many species are also extremely beautiful, and only a tiny number of scarce species nibble on our clothes.

This event will be used to introduce moths and to train aspiring moth trappers to trap, identify, record and log records of moths. The outdoor opening of the moth traps will be followed by a slide show indoors.

EVENT DETAILS

When

Saturday, 28th June 2025: Meeting at 7:00 am.

Where

Bog of Allen Nature Centre, Lullymore, Rathangan, Co. Kildare, R51 V293.

How to Get There

The site is reached from Allenwood by taking the R414 west and crossing Shee Bridge 1km from Allenwood on the left. Continue for 4 km. The Bog of Allen Nature Centre is on the right. Turn right and enter the car park. The venue has plenty of parking. A grid reference for the car park is N 70571 25876. See Discovery Series 49. 

Ireland’s Biodiversity Intactness

In a study published by the British Museum, the Republic of Ireland was ranked 13th from the bottom out of 240 countries for biodiversity intactness (Natural History Museum, 2020). Northern Ireland was ranked one place above. The Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) measures biodiversity change using abundance data on plants, fungi and animals worldwide. The Index illustrates how local terrestrial biodiversity responds to human pressures, including land use change and intensification. The Biodiversity Intactness Index summarises the change in ecological communities in response to human pressures. The BII is an estimated percentage of the original number of species that remain and their abundance in any given area, despite human impacts. The BII is calculated using data from ecological studies conducted worldwide. This data includes more than 54,000 species, encompassing not only birds and mammals, the groups most often used in biodiversity indicators but also plants, fungi and insects.

Ireland has exceeded six of the seven biospherical boundaries (CO2 emissions, material and ecological footprints, land use change and phosphorus and nitrogen) (Murphy 2023), leading to significant adverse impacts on nature and biodiversity. The Biodiversity Intactness Index ranks Ireland in the bottom 10% globally (Natural History Museum, 2020). A key driving factor is habitat loss, as Ireland – similar to the UK – spent two centuries converting land to pasture to support increased livestock numbers (CSO, 2015). National agriculture policy accelerated increases in cattle and sheep in the 1970s, with cattle levels now at record highs. Agriculture occupies 67% of the territory, and Ireland has the second lowest level of terrestrial protected area in the EU at 13.9%, less than half the 30% target by 2030 (EEA, 2023). Other drivers of biodiversity loss include invasive species, pollution, and climate change. Consequently, natural habitats are virtually non-existent in Ireland, and many semi-natural habitats continue to be impacted by human activities.

What are we doing to halt Biodiversity Loss?

In 2019, the national parliament voted to declare both a national Climate and Biodiversity Emergency and in 2023, the Citizen’s Assembly and the Children and Young People’s Assemblies urged the state to take decisive and urgent action. The 2017–2021 biodiversity plan was critiqued for its lack of SMART targets (targets that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound) and KPIs (Key Performance Indicators). The new plan (2024) aims to address this with clear implementable actions and a Monitoring and Evaluation Framework, with an audit role for the National Biodiversity Forum. The new Biodiversity Action Plan has been on a statutory footing since 2023, with binding goals. However, existing policies and practices in other areas, including agriculture, may inhibit action without a systemic approach.

A Hammer Blow

Indeed, there is evidence for this at the Teagasc conference on extensive grasslands held in Birr, County Offaly, on June 12^th. While good practice was described by a number of speakers to an audience of environmentally conscious farmers, the final address, by the Director of Teagasc, Frank O’Mara was a hammer blow to anyone feeling optimistic under the influence of the previous speakers. The Director extolled the economic importance of Perennial Rye-grass monocultures, stating it was vital to the Irish economy and would continue to be a cornerstone of Irish agriculture. This cornerstone produces massive bulk for feeding livestock but only with massive chemical inputs that damage our soils, water, air and biodiversity. This effectively treats soil as dirt, waterways as sewers and turns air into toxic gas.

Anyone who doubts the Director’s avowal of intensive farming is well supported should look at the diminishing abundance of Ireland’s butterfly populations. ‘Plummeting’ is not hyperbole. The Meadow Brown is down 86% from its 2008 abundance over the period 2008-2021; the Green-veined White is down 87.2%, and the Ringlet fell by 88%.  All are widespread grassland species, showing widescale decline.

Woodland and Grassland Loss

Let’s look at just two habitat classes, woodland and grassland. Native woodland has almost disappeared. Ireland has no large forest. Only 2% of the land area of the Republic of Ireland contains native woodland. And we are still not learning. We continue to favour non-native trees for plantations. The Tree Council of Ireland proudly displayed a poster of trees grown in Ireland at the Bloom Festival in early June. Lodgepole Pine, Sitka Spruce and Sycamore had pride of place. The lady at their information stand insisted these trees were good for nature. This is utterly wrong, as far as Ireland’s ecosystems are concerned. Native trees, grown from native sources, are good for biodiversity. Non-native Sycamore feeds two of Ireland’s macro-moths (larger moths). Native Grey Willow, regarded as a weed by foresters, feeds about 121 macro-moths. Our native oaks support an astonishing number of species. The Purple Hairstreak butterfly and 71 macro-moths breed on oak. UK research found 1,178 invertebrate species using oak, and 257 invertebrates rely solely on our two native oaks. This does not include birds, bats, lichens or mosses using the oaks (Environmental Information Data Centre, 2019).

We still have semi-natural grasslands, but these are vanishing, just as our native woods were eliminated, and farming is the main cause of their removal. The Irish Semi-natural Grassland Survey 2007-2012 visited 1,200 sites (O’Neill et al., 2013). A subset of the sites (c.110 sites) were revisited during 2015-2017. Between the two surveys 31% of the area of species-rich calcareous grasslands, 28% of lowland hay meadows and 7% of Molinia (Purple Moor-Grass) meadows were gone. Fifty-seven of these were species-rich calcareous grasslands. Forty-nine per cent of these had lost area and three sites had gone completely. 65 hectares of habitat were lost overall. These are priority habitats, listed in the EU Habitats Directive as requiring protection.

What are the main threats to these grasslands? Habitat loss is due to intensive agriculture (fertilisation and re-seeding), forestry and construction and land abandonment which is less dramatic and immediate but is occurring over large areas (O’Neill et al., 2013).

Sixty-seven per cent of the land area of the Republic of Ireland is farmed, up from 64% in 2014 (CSO, 2014). This means that the way farming is carried out is crucial. If farmers continue to apply herbicides, pesticides, fertilisers, drainage, re-seeding and scrub clearing then our climate, soil, water and air pollution will continue to deteriorate, and biodiversity will continue to be lost.

The Director of Teagasc was correct. Who cares about life on earth when massive chemical-mediated production on degraded grassland makes $$$?

References

Citizens’ Assembly. 2023. Report of the Citizens Assembly on Biodiversity Loss. Dublin: Government Publications.

DHLGH. 2024. Ireland’s 4th National Bio-Diversity Action Plan 2023-2030. Government of Ireland.

European Environment Agency. 2023. “Terrestrial Protected Areas in Europe.” https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/terrestrial-protected-areas-in-europe?activeAccordion=546a7c35-9188-4d23-94ee-005d97c26f2b

Government of Ireland. 2022. Public Consultation on Ireland’s 4th National Biodiversity Action Plan 2021-2027. Government of Ireland.

Harding, J. & Lysaght, L. (Eds.)(2025) An Atlas of Butterflies in Ireland 2010-2021. The National Biodiversity Data Centre, Waterford.

https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/93973-irelands-4th-national-biodiversity-action-plan-20232030/

Mitchell, R.J.; Bellamy, P.E.; Ellis, C.J.; Hewison, R.L.; Hodgetts, N.G.; Iason, G.R.; Littlewood, N.A.; Newey, S.; Stockan, J.A.; Taylor, A.F.S. (2019). Oak-associated biodiversity in the UK (OakEcol). NERC Environmental Information Data Centre. https://doi.org/10.5285/22b3d41e-7c35-4c51-9e55-0f47bb845202

Murphy, M. P. 2023. Creating an Ecosocial Welfare Future. Bristol: Policy Press.
CSO (Central Statistics Office). 2015. Statistical Yearbook of Ireland 2015 Agriculture Crops & Livestock. https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-syi/statisticalyearbookofireland2015/agriculture/cropslivestock/

Natural History Museum. 2020. “UK in the Relegation Zone for Nature, Reveals Natural History Museum and RSPB.” https://www.nhm.ac.uk/press-office/press-releases/uk-in-the-relegation-zone-for-nature–reveals-natural-history-mu.html

NPWS. 2022. National Biodiversity Action Plan 2017-2021. DHLGH. https://www.npws.ie/legislation/national-biodiversity-plan

O’Neill, F.H., Martin, J.R., Devaney, F.M. & Perrin, P.M. (2013) The Irish semi-natural grasslands survey 2007-2012. Irish Wildlife Manuals, No. 78. National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, Ireland.

 

There is little point in claiming dull, overcast weather is better for butterfly walks. However, muted brightness often reveals sights that bright light obscures, reminiscent of a line in a hymn: ‘Tis only the splendour of light hideth thee.’ (Smith, 1867).

Perhaps a calmer mindset prevails in the naturalist, engendering closer scrutiny, a slow time when one pauses, searches, and seeks clues to whereabouts. A nibbled leaf, an irregular shape, a pair of antennae, or a rustle hyper-focuses the senses.

Insects one cannot get close to in hot weather are suddenly approachable. How else would one get a close view of this female Emperor? Usually soaring imperiously above one’s head, then darting dramatically in an unexpected direction, there is no chance of obtaining a photograph.

We enjoyed photographing the empress before she managed to warm her flight muscles and escape our cameras. A search of the two buckthorn species revealed Brimstone caterpillars. Look at the following photos.

These caterpillars were found in adjoining bushes. The size difference points to the timing of egg-laying, indicating the eggs being laid over weeks by the same generation of females, and possibly, but improbably, by the same female. The adult butterfly will fly over several weeks in the summer, typically starting in mid-July (occasionally early in July in a warm year like this) and ending in early or mid-September. Occasionally adults are seen late in September or early October.  In most years, mid-July to early September is the time to watch the adults. The adults you see in mid-July are the first to hatch from their pupae, represented by the largest caterpillar above. The adults you encounter later in mid-August are likely the result of the later laid eggs, represented by the first instar caterpillar.  The adults that emerged in July will probably be hibernating by mid-August; no butterfly that must survive several months of cool weather can expose itself for several weeks.

When warmer weather arrives in spring, the first Brimstones to wake are the males. Females begin to appear about a week later and mating quickly follows. Long-lived females will lay their eggs over several weeks, usually from April.

Spring butterflies ‘know’ that spring weather can be erratic. Conditions like those this spring, with most days of unbroken sunshine, are rare. Spring flyers can take advantage of brief good weather, and even today we saw Marsh Fritillaries on the wing and found a number on grassland ready to act if the temperature allowed.

Other creatures drew our attention too. Marbled White-spot and plume moths caught eyes usually attuned to seeking larger, more colourful fare. The lovely flora of the area was also enjoyed, and our two-hour ramble sent us home happy.

 

 

 

The magic ingredient for a butterfly event outdoors is warmth and sunshine and the weekend of the 17th and 18th of May provided this magic. Bright, unbroken sunshine and the temperature peaking at 24 and 25 Celsius allowed butterflies and day-flying moths to fly at any time during the day. Butterflies do not usually fly throughout the day.  They feed, rest, shelter, bask, mate and lay eggs as well as flying.

I was a little fearful that the prolonged fine weather might have brought an early closure to the flight period of the Pearl-bordered Fritillary but happily, this butterfly put in a great display, glowing deep orange in crystal Burren sunshine.

What is also key to the success of any outing is the people taking part.  The enthusiastic group on both days sparked the atmosphere nicely, adding to the excitement of being in beautiful habitats in sublime weather. At Fahee North we sampled the butterflies in a site containing calcareous grassland, limestone heath, exposed limestone pavement, humid/wet grassland/marsh and scrub. The adjoining site holds open scrub on limestone pavement with dry calcareous grassland. This site, which holds a holy well, has long been notable for its Pearl-bordered Fritillary population. It must be emphasised that the habitats are protected by Burrenbeo Trust volunteers controlling, but not eliminating scrub. 

Scrub is a vital part of the habitats and must be retained. The image below shows a larval nest of Small Eggar caterpillars on Blackthorn that is part of a patch of roadside scrub. This moth has been recorded in just 34 10 km squares since 2000, 15 of these are in or near the Burren.  We enjoyed observing the to-ing and fro-ing of the heat-excited caterpillars. In the hottest part of the day, most had retreated to the interior of their web.

We were delighted to see so many Marsh Fritillaries on the grassland and heath. This is the earliest I have seen them in the Burren. We have males skirmishing, briefly and the more sedate females keeping a discreet difference. These had mated already so the males were of no interest to the females who were preparing to lay their first and largest egg load or were flying with the freedom that comes with significant weight loss, feeding and maturing a second egg batch. Common Blues were lesser in number but showy, bringing their sky-blue shimmer to the scene. Small Heath bobbed about the fescue tussocks, flashing their bright orange uppersides at us.

We moved onto the limestone pavement and soon Pearl-bordered Fritillaries appeared. Some were caught and placed in jars to be admired and released. Several moths were netted. I saw my first-ever Burren Narrow-bordered Five-spot Burnet along with Six-spot and Transparent Burnets (known from just four counties, mainly in Clare), all symbols of pristine, undamaged habitats. A spectacular day-flier, the Wood Tiger, was also netted and displayed, to the delight of all. It is a beautiful species and is probably uncommon everywhere it still occurs. It is listed as Near Threatened and has not been recorded in 17 counties in the Republic of Ireland since 2000. Speckled Yellow, which looks like a butterfly was also sighted. It rarely poses for photographs, alas! It has not been reported from 20 counties on the island of Ireland. When you see it in abundance in the Burren, don’t take this for granted. The Dew moth was also a welcome sight. This gem has been returned from just three counties: Clare, Galway and Mayo. It is in good hands in the Burren, as long as its habitat is not molested.

Sunday meant a later start but we made the most of the additional time with some exploring the nearby Cahercommaun ring fort. The surrounding calcareous grassland and Hazel scrub are rich in butterflies. The easy exploration allowed by the Clooncoose Valley Green Road is one benefit. This is surely Ireland’s Butterfly Road. The traffic can be congested and casualties occur with the area’s predators knowing that rich pickings are available. We watched a Hairy Dragonfly pounce on a male Marsh Fritillary, carrying the hapless victim in its vice-grip jaws. A collective dismay engulfed the group. The road teemed with dragonflies, mostly Black-tailed Skimmer, Hairy Dragonfly and Four-spotted Chaser. 

One area adjoining the road, a clearing in the scrub, was being used as a lek site by Small Heath butterflies. Watching the males display to catch a lady’s eye was intriguing. This is the first time I have seen this behaviour in this pretty little butterfly. I netted both, showed one to the group and when released he returned to his lekking site to continue with his competitive display.

The road offers a route through a large area, from near the Gort road to Cahercommaun and some butterflies using this infrastructure do not breed along the route; Marsh Fritillary and Pearl-bordered Fritillary seem to use it to move through the area and seek mates.

The Pearl-bordered Fritillary occurs only in the Burren, occupying just ten 10 km squares, mainly in the east Burren, in open scrub on limestone. It was only discovered in 1922, in Clooncoose. It remains in place hopefully never to be removed.

Thanks to everyone who helped, including those who spotted and netted butterflies, moths and dragonflies and especially to the lady who baked me a cake, another magic ingredient!

The long days of bright sunshine during March and April accelerated the development of the Marsh Fritillary caterpillars. This warmth continues into May as I write (13 May) stimulating the early emergence of the adult Marsh Fritillary butterfly.

Our management work at Lullybeg Reserve during the winter has helped shorten development times by expanding areas receiving direct sunlight and making more food and habitat available to the caterpillars and the adults.  The pattern of bright sunny days and cool, even cold nights might have helped in another way.

The Marsh Fritillary caterpillar is infected by two wasps, Cotesia bignelli and Cotesia melitaearum. The latter species produces three generations, predating a single generation of caterpillars. The first generation attacks the first instar larvae in July and August, killing a percentage of these before pupating, emerging and attacking third or fourth instar caterpillars, spending winter within fourth instar larvae. These infected larvae are killed in spring and the adult wasps infect the final growth stages of the caterpillars. Losses can be so large that a population is wiped out. This removes both the butterfly and wasp from the breeding habitat.

However, in cool, sunny springs, the emergence of adult wasps from their pupae is delayed. The developing wasps cannot heat themselves within their pupae and may remain longer than usual in this state. Meanwhile, the spring larvae develop faster in cool, sunny weather and will pupate before many of the wasps have hatched. In this way, more Marsh Fritillaries survive to take flight. The wasp cannot infect eggs, pupae or adults, and they emerge out of synchronicity with their prey. This might have occurred this year.

However, some final-stage larvae were infected; this year I have observed several larvae feeding intermittently, without enthusiasm. These will not pupate. Their lives are being prolonged by their internal parasitoids which, if they pupated now, would emerge without any available larvae to attack. 

Their tactic therefore is to bite their way out of the caterpillar, usually at the end of May and spin dense white silk over their pupae to deliberately prolong their pupal phase until the next generation of Marsh Fritillary caterpillars are available for them to attack in mid to late July. The cycle then begins again.

Maintaining a large area of habitat makes extinction at the site level less likely.  Maintaining connections with nearby populations means re-population can occur if a site loses its population due to conditions that favour the wasp. 

These objectives are being achieved in the Lullymore and Lullybeg areas. The recording of fifty Marsh Fritillaries in Lullybeg on Monday 12 May is a fitting reward for the hard work controlling scrub and disturbing selected areas of the sward containing the foodplant to avoid Moor-grass overdominating.

The butterflies seen on 12 May, all males, were patrolling low over the area, seeking newly hatched females in need of a mate. They were occasionally inspected by Dingy Skippers, also enjoying an early, populous spring. Happy times!

Photos copyright J. Harding