On Today With Claire Byrne on Friday, 24 October 2025, an interesting debate featuring the tension between farming and conservation was aired. The state’s plans to expand its holdings of land protected for nature are opposed by farmers, especially by the Irish Natura & Hill Farmers’ Association. According to its new president, Pheilim Molloy, the amount of land purchased by the National Parks and Wildlife Service for nature conservation from 2010-2023 was: 2020: 272 acres, 2021: 83 acres, 2022: 10 acres, 2023: 1,528 acres.
These lands were “Being bought up at the expense of young farmers…getting access to land,” according to Pheilim Molloy. The state also acquired over 600 acres near the Connemara National Park in 2025. About 7000 acres were bought by NPWS during Malcolm Noonan’s tenure (2020-2024), averaging about €4,200 an acre. This is high nature value land.
This area, located in the Burren, held limestone pavement, scrub and flower-rich grassland before it was destroyed by the landowner.
According to Molloy, the state’s greater purchasing power meant local farmers were outbid. The average farm size in Ireland is c.75 acres, so even the small parcels of land purchased by the state are hampering economic opportunities for local farmers, claimed Molloy.
Hay meadow, Burren National Park. This is a rare habitat in Ireland. It requires specific management and cannot survive intensive farming.
In response, Malcolm Noonan, responsible for NPWS in the previous administration, described the financial schemes available to farmers to support nature conservation, such as those supporting breeding waders and farming in the Burren.
Molloy wants farmers to own the land, and they would apply conservation measures in their farming practices.
Regarding the overgrazing of uplands by sheep, Molloy stated that sheep have been farmed in Ireland for thousands of years.
However, poor management is damaging our habitats, according to Malcolm Noonan. Land abandonment should be avoided, he added, calling for conservation-centred management of semi-natural grassland. Funding is key, but the funding, €3.15 billion Climate and Nature Fund earmarked for nature restoration at scale under the previous Government, has now been redirected to Metro North, a rail system to be located mainly in North Dublin, stated Noonan, who called for adequate funding for farmers to safeguard nature, water and climate.
In our view, the purchase of land to secure important habitats is important but insufficient. The amount of land purchased is tiny. We are emphatic that farmers are not the custodians of biodiversity.
Farming is a business. A business will make choices to maximise profit. Unless care for nature produces profit, most agricultural businesses will ignore it.
Pheilim Molloy’s comments about farmers (in general) taking care of habitats are contradicted by the facts. In 2020, 10% of the Republic of Ireland’s land was used for crops and about 60% was used for grassland, mostly fertilised (CSO, 2022). In the last decade, Ireland lost 30% of its semi-natural grasslands, and more than half of Ireland’s native plants are in decline (Fourth National Biodiversity Action Plan 2023-2030). Concerning farmers caring for the land, consider this statistic: 85 per cent of our internationally important and protected habitats are in poor condition. Most are in private ownership, mostly owned by farmers. Every five years, an update report on the state of Europe’s environment is compiled by the European Environment Agency (EEA). The report is a synthesis of country profiles detailing conditions in each of the 27 European Union member states and 11 neighbouring countries. With regard to biodiversity, the 2025 report on Ireland states that biodiversity “remains under threat and the state of nature is very poor” (EEA, 2025).
Beautiful orchid-rich calcareous grassland in the Burren, Parknabinnia, County Clare.
Ireland ranked bottom among EU member states for expenditure on environmental protection. The EU average was 2.2 per cent of GDP, but Ireland’s expenditure was just 0.9 per cent (EEA, 2025). And Pheilim Molloy wants the state to stop buying high nature value land for conservation purposes.
We need to buy more land for nature, not none, and continue to provide financial support to farmers who manage their land to support biodiversity objectives. We must have more land where nature conservation is the primary objective. In this regard, the purchase by the state of Cullahill Mountain SAC (Special Area of Conservation) is welcome. This land holds the priority habitat, ‘Semi-natural dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (important orchid sites)’. This important site in north Kilkenny is currently grazed by Dexter cattle to enhance the quality of the habitat. Kilkenny has only eight Special Areas of Conservation, and only one other site contains similar semi-natural grassland in a county with highly intensive agriculture.
Orchid-rich grassland, The Burren.Hay meadow, the Burren. Hay meadows need to be cattle-grazed and cut at the correct times.
The correct management of high nature value land is crucial. The desire of farmers to add to their farms suggests a desire to increase profits, not to care for nature. Unless the need to farm profitably and the need to protect the environment that grows our food are sustainably aligned, our biodiversity will continue to suffer.
The Wood White requires dry, unfertilised grassland/scrub mosaics for its survival.
Imagine reporting to your company’s board that the firm’s business has only a single irreplaceable supplier, who we rarely, if ever, pay, and who is deteriorating and going out of business.
If you are lucky enough to farm high-nature-value land, cherish the treasures you have. Pay your supplier.
The very rare Scarce Crimson and Gold moth only occurs in unfertilised habitats; in Ireland, it occurs mainly in the Burren.
Key References
Central Statistics Office (2022). Environmental Indicators Ireland. Available at: https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-eii/ environmentalindicatorsireland2022/landuse/(Accessed 27 November 2023).
Butterfly Conservation Ireland manages a reserve for butterflies in Lullybeg, in northwest Kildare. The reserve holds a variety of our scarcer butterflies and moths, as well as common species. The habitats include scrub, woodland, wet grassland (including molinia grassland, a protected habitat under the EU Habitats Directive), ponds, marsh, wet heath, and poor fen and flush. The sunny weather during the spring and summer months benefited our reserve’s butterflies. Vegetation has responded to the conditions during the main growth seasons, showing dense growth that requires management.
The spring was the warmest and sunniest on record, and while summer was the warmest on record too, we received near-average rainfall. The reserve is on peat soil, and the naturally impeded drainage results in conditions that rarely dry out, so that the combined moisture and warmth stimulate a vigorous response from the wetland vegetation. With the increasing density of the grassland posing a conservation challenge, we introduced a tried and tested strategy: cattle grazing.
Cattle graze Lullybeg Reserve, October 2025.Close view of Purple Moor-grass showing evidence of cattle grazing. Note the blunt grass tips.
Eight study cattle were brought in, and these tackled the rank grassland. Cattle breeds used in farming today generally avoid tough grasses, preferring the softer, medium and thin-bladed species they find more palatable. However, cattle will ‘make do’. Our observations showed that the livestock did eat the tough Purple Moor-grass. Cattle will nibble on the leaves of Devil’s-bit Scabious, but this appears to be tentative, and the plant, used by the caterpillars of the Marsh Fritillary butterfly and Narrow-bordered Bee Hawkmoth, is left uneaten. We therefore get the benefits of sward density reduction without loss of important foodplant resources.
Devil’s-bit Scabious in bloom in wet grassland, 25 August 2025.Marsh Fritillary larval nest in Lullybeg Reserve, 25 August 2025.
Cattle do more good than reducing sward heights and maintaining sward structure. Cattle also trample dense growth, breaking it up and opening the sward. This creates bare ground and disturbs soil, especially where poaching occurs around congregation points, leading to the development of wet flushes and shallow water, adding to the small-scale diversity crucial for biodiversity. Small-scale diversity is increasingly scarce in our farmed and abandoned land, and this reduction in structural diversity is negative for nature. In addition, some wetland flora cannot withstand denser, closed swards on peat soils and are lost if near bare and sparsely vegetated soils are lost from a site. We have found that Sheep’s Sorrel and Cuckooflower disappear when bare areas are lost.
Herb-rich wet grassland in flower in Lullybeg Reserve, 3 August 2025.Narrow-bordered Bee Hawkmoth caterpillar on Devil’s-bit Scabious.
The cattle also fed on and poached the elevated, drier ground, which has ensured that these areas now have more bare soil. This action allows important plants like Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil to thrive, while surrounding bare areas heat up in sunshine, warming the soil and adjoining foodplants, increasing their attractiveness to gravid female butterflies and moths. The bare sites are also used as resting and basking sites for butterflies.
The Common Blue uses Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil in Lullybeg. This male was seen on 31 May 2025.
The cattle were happy too, enjoying a fibre-rich, unfertilised, wild diet in a quiet, sheltered grass/woodland mosaic.
This management will allow sights like those following to continue to be enjoyed.
A special thanks to Michael Jacob, Chairman of Butterfly Conservation Ireland, for arranging the grazing and to Philip Doyle for providing the livestock.
Fox Moth caterpillar on Meadowsweet, Lullybeg Reserve, 21 September 2025.A male Comma feeding on Devil’s-bit Scabious, Lullybeg Reserve, 23 September 2025.Lullybeg Reserve showing semi-natural woodland containing Scots Pine, Downy Birch and Grey Willow.A lovely male Brimstone takes a late sip from Devil’s-bit Scabious on Lullybeg Reserve, 21 September 2025.Peacock, Lullybeg, 18 July 2025. Dense grassland and scrub remove nectar sources needed by this long-lived, overwintering adult butterfly.The Small Copper foodplant in Lullybeg (Sheep’s Sorrel) needs bare ground to germinate. This Small Copper was seen in Lullybeg on 18 July 2025.A female Emerald Damselfly in Lullybeg Reserve, 18 July 2025. This species particularly likes shallow water found in Lullybeg Reserve.
According to the European Union, the main causes of biodiversity loss are changes in land use (e.g. deforestation, intensive monoculture, urbanisation), direct exploitation such as hunting and over-fishing, climate change, pollution and invasive alien species.
This post selects examples of biodiversity loss from land use changes (deforestation), climate change, pollution (agricultural intensification: use of chemicals), and invasive alien species.
White-tailed Sea Eagles killed by Wind Turbines
As the Irish state embarks on ramping up wind farms, three White-tailed Sea Eagles have been killed by turbines in south Donegal in the past 12 months. Despite this, an application has been made in the region for more, bigger turbines with an increased tip height (maximum tip height of between 149.4m and 149.6m). So much for the collision risk modelling, which predicted just 0.09 collisions per year — equivalent to one bird killed every 10.8 years. The silence about this is deafening.
The state’s ramping up of wind farm developments, a move mandated by the European Union, will see the rubber-stamping of wind turbines in selected areas.
An area of forestry in County Cork dating back two centuries, roughly the equivalent of eight pitches at Croke Park, has allegedly been illegally felled in recent weeks, according to preliminary inquiries carried out by the National Parks and Wildlife Service, the state body for the country’s wildlife and habitats. The area that held the wood comprises over 30 acres.
Malta has apparently lost four butterfly species, all in the last few years: Brown Argus, Small Copper (last recorded in 2017), Speckled Wood (last recorded in 2020) and Small Heath (last recorded at Ghadira Reserve in 2013), according to reliable observers in the Maltese Islands. All were common until recent decades. A warning of their likely extinction was given in 2018. Suggested causes for Small Copper decline are habitat degradation, which could stem from dumping, excessive pesticide use and, potentially, perturbations resulting from prolonged arid spells and severe climatic episodes that lead to a mismatch (‘out-of-sync’ phenomenon) between life-cycle stages and the availability of resources for foraging and egg laying by the adult, and suitable food-plants for the larvae.
Source: LOUIS F. CASSAR A REVISION OF THE BUTTERFLY FAUNA (Lepidoptera Rhopalocera) OF THE MALTESE ISLANDS. Naturalista sicil., S. IV, XLII (1), 2018, pp. 3-19
In Ireland, declines for the Small Copper, Speckled Wood and Small Heath during 2008-2024 are -68%, -71% and -79% respectively. Are these butterflies heading for extinction here, too?
Source: Judge, M and Lysaght, L.(2025). The Irish Butterfly Monitoring Scheme Newsletter, Issue 17. National Biodiversity Data Centre.
Invasive Alien Species Range Extension
Asian Hornet, a non-native invasive predator of invertebrates, including honeybees and butterflies, has now been sighted in Belfast, following sightings in Cork and Cobh. This species arrived in France in 2004 from pottery imported from China. Despite considerable eradication work, it has not been removed from France, is spreading in Britain and has spread elsewhere in Europe.
Considering the spring and summer of 2025 were the warmest on record, one might expect record numbers of butterflies. Findings from the UK Big Butterfly Count, which took place in July and August 2025, do not support this expectation. Too much damage has been and continues to be wrought on our landscapes for real recovery. The National Biodiversity Data Centre report on the findings of the Irish Butterfly Monitoring Scheme for 2025 will make interesting reading.
Butterfly population abundance reflects the health of our air, water, soils and habitats. Low populations reflect environmental despoilation. Reversing the trend requires local, national and international action. Butterfly populations will not recover without action, no matter how often the sun shines.
A species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The organisms in the complex may be able to hybridise readily with each other, further blurring any distinctions. The Swallowtail butterfly Papilio machaon in the Palaearctic (a biogeographic realm covering Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas, and North Africa) is a species complex. The differences observed in wing characters have led to many subspecies being described, but is there any genetic basis for these designations?
Swallowtail, Malta. Photo J. Harding, October 7, 2025.
We can be confident that the Large White Pieris brassicae is distinct from the Small White Artogeia rapae, based on a range of taxonomic indicators. The appearance of the adults provides separation features: differences in size, markings, and colour are significant. Egg-laying behaviour differs: the Large White lays eggs in groups, the Small White lays singly. Larval behaviour differs: the Small White larva is solitary, the Large White larva is social, the Small White larva is usually concealed, while the aposematic (showing markings warning of danger or unpalatability ) Large White larvae feed in the open. The larval colour differences are also distinctive. Furthermore, the Small White larva is edible to birds, the Large White is distasteful, despite sharing the same larval food.
Chalkhill Blue male, Rodborough Common, Gloucestershire. Photo J. Harding, 21 July 2018.
These differences are easily observed. However, in other species, such as the Chalkhill Blue, differences are far less obvious. However, genetic analysis is helping to separate species that look identical or nearly identical. The Chalkhill Blue Lysandra coridon contains 84-92 chromosomes. The Macedonian Chalkhill Blue Lysandra phillipi, which occurs only in northern Greece, on Mount Pangeon and Phalakron, has only 20-26 chromosomes. Differences in appearance are slight, and specimens are often indistinguishable.
Many species include several subspecies. Subspecies is a rank below species, and refers to a population occupying a distinct area, separate from others of the same species and having constant and clearly different characteristics. However, size differences (among other differences), despite appearing significant, are not always reliable in distinguishing one animal from another.
A recent study, which assessed 40 subspecies of Papilio machaon in the Palearctic, simplified these to 14 subspecies (Nazari et al., 2023). A more recent study (Cassar et al., 2025), aimed at testing the taxonomic boundaries and relationships in the Western Palaearctic (Europe, N. Africa, Middle East) using whole-genome data of taxa (taxa are any biological unit species, subspecies or form or group of units such as genus, family, etc) from the Mediterranean region, which include first draft genomes of the Corsican Swallowtail Papilio hospiton and Desert Swallowtail Papilio saharae. Louis Cassar and his colleagues refined the species boundary of P. machaon and confirmed that the Desert Swallowtail, which closely resembles P. machaon, is a separate species, P. saharae, not a subspecies of P. machaon.
The study assessed the subspecies limits of Mediterranean P. machaon and P. saharae through Bayesian multispecies coalescent inferences (a statistical method used to estimate species trees and other evolutionary parameters, such as population sizes and divergence times, by modelling gene trees within a species tree framework) and population genomic analyses, indicating that a taxonomic simplification is needed, with the exclusion of P. machaon from North Africa (P. saharae mauretanica Verity, comb. nov.) and the synonymy of subspecies (P. saharaeneosaharae Tarrier, syn. nov.). Common Swallowtail, therefore, does not occur in North Africa .
(Note: comb. nov refers to the formal renaming of an organism’s scientific name when it is transferred to a different genus, reclassified within a different species, or its taxonomic rank is altered; syn. nov.” stands for “new synonym”, used when a newly described species or other taxon is found to be identical to a previously named, but different, taxon. The older name is then considered the valid one, and the newer name is placed into synonymy with it.)
The study revealed heterogeneous (diverse) levels of heterozygosity (which refers to the presence of different alleles (versions of a gene) at a particular locus (location on a chromosome) in an individual’s genome) between island and continental lineages that warrant further taxonomic actions. They also found evidence of low gene flow between the Common Swallowtail in Corsica P. machaon, and the Corsican Swallowtail P. hospiton, endemic to Corsica and Sardinia. They discussed how the speciation (evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species) and phylogeographic patterns are in line with past climatic and geological changes of the Mediterranean Basin.
Although P. machaon is now excluded from North Africa, P. saharae has not been excluded from Europe. Indeed, the swallowtail on Lampedusa Island (Italy) has been designated as a subspecies of the Saharan Swallowtail, P. saharae aferpilaggi. The habitats on Lampedusa are like those in Malta, Sicily, and southern Italy. It breeds on different members of the carrot family than those used by P. machaon, which mainly uses Fennel Foeniculum vulgare and Fringed Rue Ruta chalepensis in southern Europe and Milk Parsley Peucedanum palustre further north. P. saharae might be found in Sicily; this is not yet confirmed.
Swallowtail caterpillars have a forked, fleshy, eversible organ, the osmeterium, concealed within the first thoracic segment. It produces this when alarmed, together with an unpleasant odour to deter predators. The larva of P. machaon has an orange osmeterium, while the larva of P. saharae is brown and twice as long.
There are morphological differences that can help to distinguish P. machaon and P.saharae. The larvae of the Saharan Swallowtail and Common Swallowtail species complex show differences in appearance. Regarding adults, 30–31 antennae segments are found in P. saharae and 33–36 segments in P. machaon. Many specimens of P. s. aferpilaggi were found to have between 29 and 35 antennal segments, with most specimens toward the lower end of the range. The genetic analysis indicates that this taxon is distinct from P. machaon and other P. saharae subspecies, but also that it is a subspecies of P. saharae. The brood structure of P. machaon and P. saharae differs, but at least some differences might be governed by climate and weather.
Mainland P. machaon specimens from Spain, Southern France, Romania, Lebanon and Israel are genetically very uniform, which correlates with the hypothesis proposed by Nazari et al. (2023), placing all these populations in a single subspecies, P. machaon aestivus.
Specimens from Sicily and Malta are differentiated from P. m. aestivus confirming the validity of subspecies P. m. sphyrus. The samples from Sicily and Malta are slightly differentiated from each other, but there are no constant, definable morphological characters to separate these populations. The genomes of specimens from Corsica are genetically close to those of subspecies P. m. sphyrus rather than P. m. aestivus, which needs further investigation. Previously, Corsican machaon has been placed with P. m. emisphyrus Verity (type locality Florence), which is considered by Nazari et al. (2023) as a synonym (the same as) of P. m. aestivus. Cassar et al. (2025) state that additional samples from mainland Italy are needed to confirm whether the genome of P. m. emisphyrus corresponds with P. m. aestivus or is close to P. m. sphyrus, like the Corsican samples.
The specimens from Crete are supported as a distinct lineage by some analyses (e.g. BPP) and have the lowest genetic diversity leading to a high genetic differentiation compared to other P. m. aestivus populations, but again, further samples are needed to clarify the taxonomic status of Crete machaon. Seyer (1977: p. 105) described subspecies P. m. ruettimanni from ‘Kreta, Karpathos und Rhodos’ but designated the holotype from Rhodes (holotype is a single type specimen upon which the description and name of a new species is based). Additional samples from Rhodes, and preferably also other islands and Southwest Turkey, are needed before application of a name to the samples from Crete. Nazari et al. (2023) placed P. m. ruettimanni as a synonym of P. m. aestivus, but the results of the 2025 study suggest that at least the Crete population is significantly different.
Overall, the study simplified 14 Common Swallowtail subspecies in the Western Palaearctic, proposing the following subspecies.
Papilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758; Systema Naturae (Ed. 10), 1: 462; TL: Europæ [= Sweden].
ssp. gorganus Fruhstorfer, 1922; TL: Germania, Austria. Europ. centr.
ssp. aestivus Eimer & Fickert, 1895; TL: Beirut.
ssp. sphyrus Hübner, [1823]; TL: not stated [= Sicily].
ssp. melitensis Eller, 1936; TL: Malta.
Nine taxa that were formerly recognised as subspecies (such as ssp. hispanicus) are absorbed under ssp. aestivus.
Cassar et al. (2025) propose three subspecies of Papilio saharae in the Mediterranean region (saharae, mauretanica and aferpilaggi)
The study looked at phylogeographical factors. Phylogeography is the field of study that combines genetics and geography to understand how evolutionary processes have shaped the geographic distribution of lineages. It examines the genetic structure of populations in relation to their spatial distribution, helping to reconstruct the historical processes (such as sea level changes, climate change) that have led to the current patterns of biodiversity.
The study found that P. m. sphyrus (Southern Italy to Sicily) and P. m. melitensis (Malta) diverged between 3000 and 6500 years ago, which is after the last glacial maximum ended. The central Mediterranean area also experienced the influence and perturbations caused by marine regressions, isolation, and influx from continental landmasses. As a result, there are marked biogeographical affinities between Sicily, the Maltese Islands and continental Italy, given the physical connection that occurred between them at various times during the Pleistocene. The last physical connection between Sicily and Malta is known to have taken place during the last glacial maximum, approximately between 30,000 and 14,000 years ago, after which any form of physical connection vanished, thus leaving Malta isolated. Although P. machaon is reluctant to cross seaways (Grech et al., 2024), the study results suggest the colonisation of Malta could have occurred through overwater dispersal.
Intriguingly, the study indicates that differences in wing shape are not necessarily indicative of genetic differences. The taxon Papilio saharae neosaharae, distinguished by a narrower, elongate forewing compared to P. s. saharae, was found to be genetically indistinguishable from P. s. saharae and is treated as a synonym (syn.nov.) by Cassar et al. (2025). This difference in wing shape can be the result of adaptation to Rutaceae (citrus family) as larval foodplant in P. s. neosaharae rather than the use of Apiaceae (carrot family) by P. s. saharae, or the effect of local environmental conditions. Interestingly, specimens also feeding on Rutaceae from SW France, which seem similar to P. s. neosaharae, were genetically identical to local Apiaceae-feeding P. machaon, suggesting that the foodplant may affect phenotype (appearance) to a certain extent.
Finally, in a 2022 study (Damagala & Lis 2022), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 16S rDNA and cytochrome b sequences were used to examine the correlation between the intraspecific classification (classification of individuals within a species, including categories like subspecies, varieties, or forms) and the genetic structure of P. machaon. Most researchers agreed that the population of the Old World swallowtail from the British Isles represents the endemic subspecies britannicus. The 2022 analysis did not show the distinctiveness of the British subspecies from the other European subspecies as proposed by many authors.
The haplotype analyses (haplotype is the set of genes at more than one locus which is inherited by an individual from one of its parents) and the location of European specimens on phylogenetic trees indicate that, despite the significant geographical distances between populations, there is the possibility of a flow of genetic information throughout Europe (including the British Isles). However, the second British specimen in the sample represented unique haplotypes. The study results suggest that the Old World swallowtail is an excellent flyer, and its individuals have no problem moving large distances, enabling the exchange of genes within one large genetic pool throughout Europe and Eurasia.
Common Swallowtail, first generation, Siena, Italy. Cassar et al. 2025 proposed that this is ssp. aestivus, previously known as ssp. emisphyrus. Photo J. Harding, April 2022.Swallowtail from Britain, reared specimen. Damagala & Lis (2023) query its subspecies status. Photo by Peter Eeles. Source: www.ukbutterflies.co.ukThe Swallowtail from the Maltese Islands has retained its subspecies status, ssp. melitensis. Photo J. Harding, October 7, 2025.
Certainly, from my observations, the adult is a formidable flyer, capable of sustained, powerful flight when it can cross several kilometres without stopping. It often appears in areas with few nectar or foodplant resources, indicating its strong dispersive and migratory tendency. Individuals who are dispersing fly with speed and are impossible to follow. Its beauty, highly variable appearance and charismatic behaviour have long charmed lepidopterists, including this one. Ireland is alone in Europe in lacking this butterfly. The warming climate might result in colonisation. I doubt that anyone will object.
Note: Responses awaited from the corresponding author of the study, ‘Whole-genome data shed light on speciation and within-species differentiation of the Papilio machaon complex around the Mediterranean Basin’, may result in amendments to this article.
References
Cassar, F., Nabholz, B., Reboud, E. L., Chevalier, E., Lafon, B. J., Cotton, A. M., & Condamine, F. L. (2025). Whole-genome data shed light on speciation and within-species differentiation of the Papilio machaon complex around the Mediterranean Basin. Systematic Entomology, 50(4), 692-712. https://doi.org/10.1111/syen.12675
Domagała, P.J.; Lis, J.A. One Species, Hundreds of Subspecies? New Insight into the Intraspecific Classification of the Old World Swallowtail (Papilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758) Based on Two Mitochondrial DNA Markers. Insects 2022, 13, 752. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/insects13080752
Grech, N., Cassar, L.-F. & Gauci, A. (2024) Use of telemetry to monitor the movements of Papilio machaon (Lepidoptera Papilionidae) and Chamaeleo chamaeleon (Squamata Chamaeleonidae). Naturalista Siculo, 48, 61–70.
Nazari, V., Cotton, A.M., Coutsis, J.G., Shapoval, N., Todisco, V. & Bozano, G.C. (2023) Guide to the butterflies of the Palearctic region. Papilionidae part IV, subfamily Papilioninae, tribe Papilionini, genus Papilio (Partim). Milan: Omnes Artes s.a.s, p. 91.
Hedgerows are dripping with fruit, blackberries resplendent in bunches like grapes, nuts browning on Hazel, haws crimson in autumn sunlight, Dog-rose fruits glowing orange, wild Crab-apples larger than ever, all showing the results of a balanced summer: well-watered, warm and sunny.
I mention fruit because butterflies are resorting to hedgerows, enjoying the sugary juices. Remaining flowers, mostly Dandelion, Ivy, and Devil’s-bit Scabious, also continue to attract remaining butterflies.
But with cooling temperatures, longer nights and diminishing resources, what butterflies can we hope to see in October?
Few species can be found in abundance except in certain coastal areas where pre-migratory Red Admirals gather for a final feed before departure. Look for them on Ivy and in orchards, where fallen fruit or fruit opened by wasp jaws leaks their sweetness. Elsewhere, Red Admiral will be found in low numbers, but it remains a presence in suitable hedgerows during October.
In autumn, Red Admirals will often bask for long periods to warm up, especially in the morning.
The Comma is another late emerger. It is probably our latest emerging butterfly now. They continue to fly throughout October, feeding on blackberries and Ivy before finding a sleeping place deep in woodland, deep hedges and scrub where they remain until next March. The autumn Comma is much deeper in colour than the direct-breeding summer generation. The colour differences are striking, but some paler Comma hatch in autumn, but these are rarely as golden as their summer predecessors.
This is the direct-breeding summer form of the Comma. It is notably paler than the darker, overwintering, delayed-breeding form. This is often referred to as the hutchinsoni form.This dark form of the Comma will delay breeding until next spring. Darker butterflies heat up more quickly in the weaker autumn sunlight. This dark form is usually referred to as the normal form.
This year, the Small Copper produced an autumn generation, a third brood. These are mostly feeding on Dandelions but also on blackberries. These are breeding, not hibernating or migrating. After mating, females feed for several days before beginning their task of locating suitable sorrels to lay their eggs. The resulting caterpillars feed until entering a hibernation state. Feeding is resumed in spring when daylight increases and the sorrel shows fresh growth. The adult Small Coppers next spring are likely the offspring of two generations, of the second and third brood of 2025, for not all second-generation adults likely produced eggs that resulted in adult butterflies in 2025.
This Small Copper is feeding on a late knapweed flower. She will soon lay her eggs.
The Speckled Wood is still on the wing in October. These might be second-generation Speckled Woods or third-generation. This butterfly has an unusual brood structure, which makes the brood provenance of adults impossible to identify. A unique feature is its ability to pass the winter in the larval and pupal states. All the other Irish species pass the winter in a single life stage.
Speckled Wood male. This short-lived butterfly will be found in sheltered hedges in autumn.
This year, excellent weather during August allowed over-wintering species that emerge in that month to complete their pre-winter feeding, so sightings of Brimstone, Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock will be few during October.
The occasional migrating Clouded Yellow will be seen. This is most often seen in October in Ireland, except in years when it arrives earlier and in abundance. Enjoy October.
The Painted Lady Vanessa cardui is an attractive migrant butterfly. It appears in Britain and Ireland every year. It is less numerous than the Red Admiral but more numerous than the Clouded Yellow, our other regular migrant butterflies. It is closely related to the Red Admiral and similar in size, with wingspans ranging from about 58mm to 74mm, with males smaller than females. Sexes look alike. Its uppersides are dark brown, orange and white with small, faint blue markings on the anal angle of the hindwings. The hindwing underside is mottled buff, white and slate blue, while the forewing pattern imitates the forewing upperside, but the broad band is pink, not orange. In fresh butterflies, the uppersides can show a lovely pink flush. The Painted Lady is seen in Ireland mainly during the summer and early autumn.
Painted Lady basking in County Meath, August 2025.
The butterfly is our most mobile species and can appear anywhere there are nectar sources, especially if thistles, the food for the larvae, are present. The butterfly breeds in Ireland during the summer, but the caterpillar cannot survive temperatures below five degrees Celsius. The Painted Lady has no ‘rest phase’ in its life cycle, and when conditions no longer favour breeding, the butterfly must migrate to find suitable conditions.
In the past, the view was that the Painted Lady migrated to Britain, Ireland and northern Europe, but that all life stages of the butterfly died when cold weather arrived. This view was supported by the almost complete absence of observed southward migration from northerly areas in autumn. However, research carried out since 2008 provides fascinating information about the butterfly’s migration.
Painted Lady underside. This butterfly is taking nectar from Common Knapweed.
Where do Painted Lady butterflies migrate to? How do we know where migrating Painted Lady butterflies originate?
The Painted Lady performs an annual multi-generational migration between Europe and North Africa. Its seasonal appearance south of the Sahara in autumn is well known and has led to the suggestion that it results from extremely long migratory flights by European butterflies to seasonally exploit the Sahel and the tropical savannah. However, this possibility had not been proven. However, a study by Constanti Stefanescu and his colleagues that analysed the isotopic composition of Painted Lady butterflies from seven European and seven African countries provides support for this hypothesis. Each butterfly was assigned a geographical natal (birth) origin, based on its wing stable hydrogen isotope (d2 Hw) value and a predicted d2 Hw basemap for Europe and northern Africa.
Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element. Isotopes of hydrogen are different across Europe and Africa, with regional variations in their abundance due to differences in climate, rainfall patterns, and moisture sources. While the three main hydrogen isotopes (protium ¹H), deuterium (²H), and tritium (³H)) are naturally occurring, their stable isotopic ratios (expressed as δ²H) vary geographically, with more depleted values found in temperate and boreal regions of Europe and higher values closer to the tropics and coastal areas in Africa. These differences in hydrological hydrogen are reliable across Europe, North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, enabling researchers to identify the origin of migrating Painted Lady butterflies.
Natal assignments of autumn migrants collected south of the Sahara (Sahel) confirmed long-distance movements (of 4,000 km or more) starting in Europe. Samples from Maghreb (north-west Africa) revealed a mixed origin of migrants, with most individuals having a European origin, but others having originated in the Sahel. Therefore, autumn movements are not only directed to northwestern Africa but also include southward and northward flights across the Sahara. Through this remarkable behaviour, the productive but highly seasonal region south of the Sahara (the area receives rain in June and July) is incorporated into the migratory circuit of the Painted Lady.
This Painted Lady butterfly is feeding on Ivy, Co. Meath, in advance of its southward migration. Many migrant Painted Lady butterflies look faded and even tattered when they arrive at their destination. The wing damage may have occurred before the migratory flights, especially if the butterflies spent several days feeding before departure.
How do we know about high altitude migration, and how do Painted Lady butterflies travel such long distances?
Migration of the Painted Lady to north-eastern Spain is aided by African wind currents that show a strong correlation between wind patterns and the ability of the butterfly to migrate long distances in a corresponding direction, concluding that the butterfly rides on the wind currents in the upper levels of the atmosphere when undertaking long-distance flights. This was confirmed by Jason Chapman and Rebecca Nesbit using vertical-looking radar to show that the insects regularly fly at a height of up to 1,200 m. In the reverse (southbound) autumn migration in 2009, most flew at between 200 and 400 Chapman and Nesbit wrote: “Wind speeds 500m above the ground are often four or five times faster than the butterflies’ flight speed, so that if they are able to fly at these heights they could reach speeds of almost 100km/hr (60 mph)”. High altitude flights are prevalent southwards from Europe in autumn.
I observed how these high-altitude flights are launched by the Painted Lady and the Red Admiral. Individual butterflies typically use level flight when moving through the landscape, but in autumn, while migratory flight at eye level occurs, high altitude flight is mostly used. Individual butterflies fly upward in a vertical or near-vertical trajectory, eventually disappearing from the view of the observer on the ground. When a following wind is located, likely, level flight at altitude is then adopted to help the butterfly move toward its destination.
Journeys northwards into Europe in spring and summer are made by successive generations of Painted Lady butterflies. Stefanescu and his colleagues state: “The migratory cycle in this species involves six generations, encompassing a latitudinal shift of thousands of kilometres”. This is a round-trip extending from Africa to above the Arctic Circle of over 13,000 kilometres.
However, as stated earlier, we also know that individual Painted Lady butterflies fly as many as 4,000 km when migrating from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa in autumn.
Another method that has been used to track butterfly movement is telemetry, when radio tags are fixed to a butterfly. A tag fitted to a Swallowtail butterfly’s head was used to track its movements in the Maltese Islands over an approximate period of two weeks of field monitoring. The release site was Comino, the island between Malta and the second-largest Maltese Island, Gozo. Tagged Swallowtail Papilio machaon melitensis individuals were recorded to undertake a short sea crossing between the islands of Comino and Gozo, subsequently, each making their way to the northern side of Gozo. Each butterfly is estimated to have covered a minimum distance of approximately 16.6 km in 17 days.
Swallowtail female on Mediterranean Thistle/Boar Thistle Galactites tomentosa, April 2025.
While the Swallowtail (wingspan up to 93mm) is larger than the Painted Lady, it is conceivable that the Painted Lady might be tracked using telemetry in the future. (The Swallowtail is dispersive within Malta, but elsewhere it will migrate. The migration rate of Papilio machaon in North America was estimated at 4.3 km per day in upwind conditions (Sperling and Harrison, 1994). In favourable weather conditions (downwind), this rate is probably higher.
What triggers the Painted Lady’s migration?
The research has concluded that the reason for migration is the need to locate and exploit abundant but temporary resources over large geographical areas. But what are the cues that drive the species to migrate? For now, these remain unknown.
Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer, making the region less suitable for breeding by Painted Lady butterflies.
The theory is that northward migration in spring is triggered by population density, increasing daylight hours, increasing temperatures, increasing aridity and decreasing nectar and larval host plant resources. Southward migration from Europe might be triggered by the decreasing light levels, falling temperatures, and diminishing nectar and host plant resources.
The wonder of Painted Lady migration
Whatever the causes, the migration of the Painted Lady is a fascinating chapter in the story of our butterflies. Adding to this wonderment is the sheer scale of these mass movements. While some migrations occur over weeks and span wide geographical areas, others are concentrated over a shorter period of time and within narrower spatial zones. I saw hundreds of Painted Ladies in Kinvara, County Galway, on May 30, 2009, flying off the Atlantic to settle on Red Valerian, trees, shrubs and even the coast road where they were crushed by traffic. I travelled home that afternoon, watching the butterflies fly across roads during my eastward journey through Galway. It is estimated that 11 million Painted Lady butterflies arrived in these islands in May 2009, but that 21 million left Britain and Ireland that autumn. Many accounts of thousands of caterpillars were recorded. An estimated 500,000 Painted Lady caterpillars were recorded in two fallow fields near Port Isaac, Cornwall.
Another mass migration occurred in 2019, when millions arrived. One County Down gardener reported 100 or more in his coastal garden, on lavender, on August 1. Hundreds of adults were recorded on Tory Island, Co. Donegal, on the previous day.
An unusual aspect of the 2019 mass migration was that it followed two years of large migrations. Typically, the year or years following a mass Painted Lady migration see very low numbers in Ireland. In 2010, following the millions that arrived in 2009, the Painted Lady was very scarce in Ireland. I saw one Painted Lady in 2010, a famine following a feast. Another unusual feature of the 2019 migration is that it began on January 10, when at least 20 were seen near Bere Island on the south side of Fair Head, County Cork. However, the main arrivals occurred in June, July and August. High numbers were recorded during September 2019, but by mid-September, the figures declined as reverse migration occurred. Few were seen in Ireland during 2020.
Such spectacular migrations are impressive, but in California, one migration was estimated to contain three billion Painted Lady butterflies! Given its rapid development rate (the egg to adult stage I observed in 2019 lasted 54 days, but this will be shorter in warmer conditions), impressive migratory capability and the wide range of larval food plants it uses, it is understandable that it is probably the most successful butterfly on Earth, occurring on all continents except South America.
When you admire a Painted Lady in your garden in late summer or autumn, keep this thought in mind: in a few days, it could be flitting between blooms on the African savannah south of the Sahara, in the company of African Lions, Leopards and Dama Gazelles.
Key References
Chapman, J. W. and Nesbit, R. L. (2008). Mysteries of Lepidoptera migration revealed by entomological radar. Atropos. 35, pp. 28-36.
Sperling, F.A.H.; Harrison, R.G. (1994). Mitochondrial DNA variation within and between species of the Papilio machaon group of swallowtail butterflies. Evolution 48, 408–422.
Stefanescu C, Soto DX, Talavera G, Vila R, Hobson KA. (2016). Long-distance autumn migration across the Sahara by painted lady butterflies: exploiting resource pulses in the tropical savannah. Biol. Lett. 12: 20160561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0561
Stefanescu, Constantí; Páramo, Ferran; Åkesson, Susanne; Alarcón, Marta; Ávila, Anna; Brereton, Tom; Carnicer, Jofre; Cassar, Louis F.; Fox, Richard; Heliölä, Janne; Hill, Jane K.; Hirneisen, Norbert; Kjellén, Nils; Kühn, Elisabeth; Kuussaari, Mikko; Leskinen, Matti; Liechti, Felix; Musche, Martin; Regan, Eugenie C.; Reynolds, Don R.; Roy, David B.; Ryrholm, Nils; Schmaljohann, Heiko; Settele, Josef; Thomas, Chris D.; van Swaay, Chris; Chapman, Jason W., Multi-generational long-distance migration of insects: studying the painted lady butterfly in the Western Palaearctic Ecography (Copenhagen), 2013-04 Vol.36 (4), p.474-486
Ivy Hedera helix is an evergreen climber found in hedges, on trees, walls and on the ground, in shaded places. The plant flowers mainly during August, September and October. The value of Ivy for pollinators lies in its abundance in the landscape and the timing of its flowering. By early September, most grassland herbs have finished flowering. Warm, sheltered, lightly managed hedges containing Ivy in flower are ideal places for pollinators, and these are well worth checking in sunny weather during autumn. Ivy hosts nocturnal insects, too. Moths like Herald and Red-green Carpet take nectar during darkness, while hoverflies, bees, wasps, flies and butterflies visit during the day.
Here are some species that use flowering Ivy.
The Speckled Wood is one of the most abundant species in September. It takes nectar from Ivy and takes juice from ripe blackberries.Small Tortoiseshells are not averse to using Ivy nectar, although they are drawn more to garden flowers during autumn.This basking Comma was busy taking Ivy nectar. For footage, visit https://youtu.be/TVIHflsNC3ERed Admiral is an avid Ivy feeder. It will often feed in large numbers, taking nectar to prepare for its migration flight to Europe.Red Admirals will continue feeding during cloudy weather, closing their wings to blend with their surroundings.Painted Lady also enjoys Ivy. A disadvantage for Ivy-feeding butterflies is the presence of insectivorous birds, especially Wrens, Robins, Chiffchaffs and Blue Tits. This Painted Lady has damage to its wings, probably the result of bird attacks.
A tip for nature lovers in September and October is to check the flowering Ivy in coastal areas. Red Admiral and Painted Lady will gorge on Ivy before flying seaward. Hundreds have been observed on Ivy on the south Wexford coast (Slade) in autumn. It provides food and roost sites for pre-migration butterflies.
Ivy is also used by overwintering insects. The Brimstone is adapted to use Ivy. Its wing shape imitates Ivy leaves, even including blotch marks on the underside of the wings.
A female Brimstone gorges on bramble. The butterfly has a habit of entering the scrub the moment the sun is obscured.
Comma may use it too. The Comma underside has a leaf-like appearance, mimicking a dead oak leaf. Dense Ivy will hold dead leaves from other plants. Being evergreen, it conceals and shelters.
Comma underside. It is designed to overwinter among dead leaves in dense cover, in scrub, woodland and dense, double-sided hedges.
Ivy is also used as a larval foodplant by the Holly Blue. Its caterpillar relies on Ivy berries in late summer and autumn. Double-striped Pug, Yellow-barred Brindle, Willow Beauty, Dot Moth, Old Lady and Small Angle Shades are macro-moths that use Ivy as their larval foodplant, among other plants.
Allowing Ivy to flower is crucial if you want to help autumn insects. If it must be trimmed, do this in February, after the worst of the winter weather is over, but avoid trimming all your Ivy in any year. Variety helps biodiversity.
‘Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,’ enthused Keats about autumn, but this year has witnessed an abrupt change as a dry, sunny August ended. Keats’ autumn was sunny, gentle and bountiful, but September 2025 has been wet so far, so butterflies are less visible, but appear quite abundant when the sun shines. This post looks at some of the butterflies we can expect to observe this month.
The Green-veined White, Large White and Small White are confusion species. We show images of all three and describe some key differences.
The upperside of the female Green-veined White shows the veins picked out in a dusting of dark scales. The female Large White and Small White also show two spots on the forewing upperside, but no vein markings. In the Green-veined White, the black apical patch extends further down the costa (leading edge) than along the termen (outer edge).The male Green-veined White has a single spot on its forewing upperside. The markings along the veins are weaker than in the female.Green-veined White (underside) on Devil’s-bit Scabious. This butterfly has been remarkably abundant in the summer and continues to fly in high numbers in early September. The vein markings are more prominent on the underside in this species, in both sexes.Large White female. The apical patch on the forewing extends an equal distance along the costa (leading edge) and termen (outer edge), unlike in the Small White. The Large White is notably larger (wingspan typically 58-62mm, sometimes larger) than the Green-veined White (45mm-50mm) and Small White (38-56mm), which often appear to be the same size. The Large White enjoyed abundance throughout July and August, which has continued into September.Unlike the male Green-veined White and Small White, the Large White male has no spot on its uppersides. It shows a single spot on its forewing underside.Large White underside. Note the large square black spot on the forewing underside. The female Large White has two underside spots on the forewing; the male has one.The female Small White has two spots on its forewing uppersides, like the female Large White and Green-veined White. Note the lemon wash; most are milky white on their uppersides. The apical patch extends further down the costa (outer edge) than along the termen (outer edge). The Small White was common this summer, but it probably did not match the other two common whites in abundance. A Small White male. Like the male Green-veined White, it has a single spot on the forewing upperside. The black apical patch extends further down the costa (outer edge) than along the termen (outer edge). Small White underside. This example has a richly coloured hindwing and apical patch on the forewing; many are paler. Some Large Whites are similar in colour but are notably larger.
The Green-veined White can be separated by habitat preference. It rarely appears in cultural habitats such as urban parks and urban and suburban gardens, due to its avoidance of dry habitats. It prefers moist, humid habitats, including moist hedgerow margins, vegetated ditches, ponds with watercress, wet grassland, fens, marshes, damp rides in woodland, bog margins, and wilder rural gardens.
The Large and Small Whites prefer drier places. These are happy in green spaces in towns and cities, especially gardens containing brassicas, allotments, brownfield sites, ‘Linnet plots’ on farmland, dry coastal habitats and generally anywhere with flowers and brassicas, but neither breeds in the damp places favoured by the Green-veined White.
All three can be found together in some places containing moist and dry conditions, such as coastal areas containing dune slacks (moist) and eroding dunes (dry), fields with damp and dry areas, and rural gardens and other places with flowers where all three will occur to take nectar. Another identification challenge is that the Large White and Small White are highly mobile and can appear anywhere, but neither breeds in humid places.
Clouded Yellow. Watch out for this beautiful migrant. It has been recorded in recent weeks.Red Admiral remains abundant in September, but many are departing for warmer regions. Look for it on garden flowers and wild blooms.Is the Comma on blackberries the most evocative image of autumn?This female Comma was sunning itself in a south-facing hedge. Commas often bask in hedges and trees.The Small Tortoiseshell feeds on flowers in gardens, fields, and anywhere there are flowers, but usually close to a hibernation site. During late summer and early autumn, they often enter buildings to seek a dark corner in which to pass the coldest months.The Speckled Wood is one of the most abundant species in September. It likes feeding on apples that have been attacked by wasps.Flower-rich, nutrient-poor grasslands are the places to look for Devil’s-bit Scabious, which flowers profusely during September. These flowers serve a nectar banquet to autumn pollinators.Devil’s-bit Scabious also host the larval nests of the Marsh Fritillary butterfly. September is a great month to search for the nests.Butterflies continue to breed during September; here are Large White eggs on Nasturtium. There is still a lot to see!
The Burren, a unique karst landscape situated in north County Clare and southwest Galway, boasts a fascinating, rich, and abundant biodiversity within visually stunning landscapes. The following images aim to provide a taste of this beauty and inspire a love for and a desire to conserve this most special place.
Limestone pavement, dry calcareous grassland and scrub are all protected features within the Burren.Brown Hairstreak ova are plentiful in parts of the Burren in 2025, indicating the butterfly had a good year. The Brown Hairstreak is one of Ireland’s rarest butterflies, recorded in just 1.8% of Ireland’s 10km squares.Grass-of-Parnassus Parnassia palustris is an elegant wildflower, favouring wet, lime-rich grassland and fens.The Goat Willow Salix caprea, likes lime-rich soils, especially moist areas. It is a very important larval foodplant for many moths and other species.The Grayling found in the Burren is paler than the Grayling found elsewhere in Ireland, blending with the pale limestone on which it usually settles. The stone provides warmth to heat its body and places to conceal itself and breeding sites: it typically lays its eggs on grass adjoining or among limestone pavement.Rusty-back is a common inhabitant of limestone pavement in the Burren.Fragrant Orchid, Fahee North, County Clare. This sweet-smelling flower often occurs near roads, in shorter vegetation.Green Shieldbug Palomena prasina, Burren, County Clare. This will overwinter and breed next year.Oak Eggar moth larva on Blue Moor-grass, County Clare. This moth is abundant in the region, and males are commonly observed in July; its swift, erratic and occasionally dramatic flight is especially eye-catching.Blue Moor-grass Sesleria caeulea, Burren. This is the foodplant of the rare Burren Green Moth and it feeds other species, like Oak Eggar and Grayling (when its caterpillar is larger, in spring).The Meadow Brown flies quite late in the Burren, and remains abundant in September, especially along the coast.The Ruddy Darter is abundant around the Burren’s lakes.The Harebell Campanula rotundifolia is a delicate beauty, common throughout the region during August.Common butterflies, like this Red Admiral, thrive in the Burren, alongside rarities. The Red Admiral is abundant in the Burren and throughout most of Ireland in August 2025.Goldenrod Solidago virgaurea is a glorious plant, a common sight in the Burren in July and August. It likes rocky, well-drained areas. It is the foodplant of the lovely micro-moth, White-spotted Sable Anania funebris.Views over the Burren in August still glow with colour. This limestone grassland is dominated by Devil’s-bit Scabious Succisa pratensis (blue flower).
Our Moth Morning, held at Cormackstown Wood, Cormickstown, Maynooth, as our Heritage Week event, was a great success.
Signage to the Moth Morning.
Discovery is exciting, and moths are largely unknown to many. This mystery is unsurprising because most are nocturnal and adept at diurnal concealment.
Bullrush Wainscot.
Robinson moth traps with a 125V Mercury Vapour lamp are a great draw for nocturnal moths, and so it proved, despite the night we trapped being cooler than recent nights.
Let me see! Each trap was placed on the viewing table.
Against this possibility, event leader Philip Strickland trapped the night before and retained some important species, including the migrant Vestal, a large Poplar Hawkmoth and the dramatic Bullrush Wainscot.
The event was well attended by younger and more experienced nature lovers. People were treated to 50 species of moths of a range of markings, colours, shapes and sizes. Philip explained that autumnal moths are less colourful than those emerging during May, June and July, and are typically brown. This did not diminish the interest in those who attended. We got close views of all the species, and the more docile moths were handled and closely observed before all were released.
Pinion-streaked Snout, a tiny moth, but surprisingly a macro-moth.
The desire to trap and record moths has already been kindled, hopefully accompanied by the drive to protect and enhance their habitats.
This Canary-shouldered Thorn was a photographer’s favourite.Centre-barred Sallow. Not all autumnal moths are brown.
We weren’t the only attendees. Philip’s grounds host Barn Swallows, who took a keen interest in proceedings, swooping low to check on the chances of a meal. A couple of moths were snapped up, but this underlines the importance of moths in our ecosystems.
Small Mottled Willow, a migrant moth.
After all the traps were examined, we were invited indoors to a wonderful spread of home-baked treats, coffee, tea, etc, etc. If I posted a photograph of the table laden with these delights, the next moth morning would be seriously over-subscribed!
Our thanks are due to the Heritage Council for supporting our moth morning, and to the Strickland family for their generosity in hosting the event and feeding us, and Philip Strickland for planning the event and his expertise.
